The fascination of minimum length and minimum time
As shown below, combining three limits that hold across nature implies that twice the Planck length ≈ 3⋅10-35 m is the smallest length in nature. It is the minimum length, the shortest measurable length. The result has been known for many decades. There is also a minimum time, given by twice the Planck time, or ≈ 10-43 s. The minimum values force us to change many habits of thought and have fascinating consequences for the unified theory of nature. Details are provided below.
As shown on the dedicated page, the limits of nature also imply that 9 lines describe all of physics and all of nature.
For example, the Planck length
contradicts an important
contemporary philosopher:
● Time is an approximation
● General relativity and quantum theory are consistent and compatible
● Space is made of constituents
● Elementary particle
mass and energy are limited
● Mathematics is approximate physics
● Research: what the unified
theory of physics cannot be
● Research: what the unified
theory of physics must be
● Research: celebrities on quantum gravity
Points, continuity and discreteness do not exist
There is nothing more compact than a black hole; there is nothing faster than light; there is no action below a quantum of action. These three limits can be combined.
Take the maximum speed , Insert the limits into the definition for action (the
quantity that measures the change of a system and that appears in the principle
of least action) given by
A smaller length does not exist, in the same way that nothing faster
than light exists, nothing smaller than a black hole exists, and
no change smaller than Planck's quantum of action exists.
A second argument. Black holes have finite entropy. Thus they consist
of a finite number of constituents. Their entropy value, the so-called
Bekenstein-Hawking entropy (look it up), implies that there is a smallest
area in nature. It is the square the minimum length, four times
the Planck area.
No smaller length value can be
measured. No smaller area. No smaller length or area values exist!
There are many other ways to deduce minimum length, for
example by exploring measurement errors, as done by Mead or by Garay.
Also the minimum length measurement error in nature is given by the
minimum length. And the same for time.
There is not even a way to get near that minimum length. The
smallest length that arose in any measurement so far is the limit on the
electric dipole moment of the electron, which is about 1000 times larger
that the minimum length.
The domain of nature where maximum speed,
maximum curvature and the quantum of action play a role at the
same time is called the domain of quantum gravity. It is a
fascinating domain of nature.
(Note: it is sometimes stated that at lengths smaller than the Planck
length, our description of nature breaks down and that we need other
theories in that domain. This is wrong. Nothing breaks down. Smaller
lengths do not exist, like systems faster than light do not exist.)
The minimum length implies there are no points in nature.
Points are an extrapolation of our imagination. In nature, points do not
exist.
The minimum length implies that continuity does not exist. Space is
not continuous. Continuity only exists in our imagination. It
does not exist in nature. Continuity is an approximation.
Conversely, the assumption of perfectly continuous space would imply a
vanishing Planck length. This would either imply a vanishing quantum of
action, or a vanishing gravitational constant, or an infinite speed of
light. In other words, exact continuity contradicts all of modern
physics.
The assumption of perfectly continuous space and time would also
imply the lack of measurement units of space and time.
Almost no measurement unit could be defined.
Nothing in nature is exactly continuous. Space, time, fields, and wave
functions are not continuous. They are only approximately continuous.
Euclidean geometry is only approximate. It is not the correct
description of nature.
The minimum length is also the smallest possible measurement error.
In other words, everything in nature is slightly blurred.
The minimum measurement error also implies that space is not
discrete. Space is not a lattice - neither a regular one, nor an
irregular one, nor is it a random set. The minimum measurement error
implies that space is not a discrete set of points.
Given that everything in nature is slightly blurred, there are no
sharp boundaries in nature. Even the boundary of the universe is
blurred.
Given that all boundaries are blurred, there are no sets in
nature.
The minimum length eliminates Zeno's paradoxes.
The three limits on speed, action and mass per length (or force)
imply that no physical observable ever has trans-Planckian values. (See
the section about mass and energy below for details.) There is no
trans-Planckian physics.
In short, space is neither a set nor is it made of points. Space is
neither continuous nor discrete. In nature, space is something completely
different from a set and from a mathematical space.
On the one hand, conventional space (whether Euclidean or Riemannian)
is an approximation. On the other hand, we need this approximation to
think and talk, in particular about nature. The minimum length implies that there is a minimum time and a minimum
time measurement error.
Thus there are no instants in time. Time is only approximately continuous,
for durations that are longer than the minimum time. Between two
"instants" (which do not exist) there is not always a third. Time is not
discrete.
Also the origin of the universe is thus blurred. There is and was no time zero.
In short, like space, time is neither a set nor is it made of instants.
Time is neither continuous nor discrete. In nature, time is something
completely different from a set and from a mathematical space. Time is an
approximation. But again, we need the approximation to think and talk, in
particular about nature. The smallest length implies that general relativity and
quantum theory never contradict each other. Indeed, they would do
so only at even smaller distances. But these do not exist.
All conceptual difficulties due to the combination of gravity and
quantum theory disappear once space is seen as effectively
continuous, and only so for all lengths longer than twice the
Planck length. Gravity and quantum theory are compatible and consistent
from the minimum length upwards. The same for time.
In the case of black holes, the minimum length fixes the entropy value.
This again shows that gravity and quantum theory are compatible and
consistent from the minimum length upwards.
The minimum length implies that singularities do not exist in nature.
Singularities are figments of imagination. This is known since at least 60
years.
In short, general relativity and quantum theory are correct,
consistent, and complement each other. Because black holes have entropy,
they are made of constituents behaving randomly.
Because the entropy of black holes is finite,
black holes are made of a finite number of constituents.
The constituents can be counted. They are discrete.
Because the minimum length fixes the entropy of black holes,
black holes are made of constituents that are Planck-sized.
Because black holes have a surface and a horizon,
the constituents are Planck-sized in two dimensions.
Black holes are both compressed matter and highly curved space.
Therefore, the entropy of black holes implies that space and
particles are made of common constituents.
Because space is extended, the common constituents must also be
extended. Because the common constituents are
Planck-sized in two dimensions, they must be extended in the third
dimension.
Space is made of constituents that are discrete and extended.
Particles are made of constituents that are discrete and extended.
Black holes are made of constituents that are discrete and extended.
In short, space is neither continuous nor discrete.
In short, the combination of general relativity and quantum theory
implies that nature is made of common constituents that are extended and
discrete, and that build up space, particles and black holes. A particle is elementary if it is smaller than its Compton wavelength.
An object larger than its Compton wavelength is called a composite.
Electrons are elementary, pieces of soap are composite. The highest
elementary particle mass occurs when its largest size measure, the
(reduced) Compton length, usually much larger than its Schwarzschild
diameter, becomes equal to it: .
This yields the limit case
for the mass of an elementary particle. The mass limit is about 10µg
and all elementary particles are much less massive.
Note that the argument does not work for composite masses:
pieces of soap are always larger than their Schwarzschild diameter.
Indeed, their mass is not limited by the Planck mass, as you can check
in your bathroom.
For the same reason, the energy of an elementary particle is limited by
, about 1 GJ. This
includes kinetic energy. The limit agrees with all observations about
cosmic rays and all other radiation ever performed. Again, the argument
does not work for pieces of soap. The energy stored in 100 kg of soap is
larger than the Planck energy. Please do not check this in your
bathroom.
In short, the combination of general relativity and quantum theory
implies that all elementary particles are less massive than half a Planck
mass and have total energies smaller than half the Planck energy, as
observed. Minimum length implies that points do not exist in nature.
The same is valid for elements, sets, axioms, continuity, etc.
The minimum length implies that natural numbers do not exist in nature.
In nature, natural numbers are approximations. Natural numbers are
low-energy approximations because counting is only possible at low energy,
i.e., at energies much lower than the Planck energy.
Strictly speaking, the natural numbers are figments of imagination.
They arise when our fantasy extrapolates observations by ignoring minimum
length and quantum gravity.
But mathematics is built on natural numbers. And on axioms and sets.
Kronecker stated: "Die ganze Zahl schuf der liebe Gott, alles
Übrige ist Menschenwerk." Quantum gravity implies: mankind also made the
integers. (Though to be honest, this holds for all observers, including
animals and machines.)
Also real numbers and all continuous quantities only exist
when the minimum length is ignored.
Thus, most mathematics only arises when the minimum length
and quantum gravity are ignored.
Most mathematics, especially mathematical analysis, is not useful for
exploring the consequences of minimum length or for exploring quantum
gravity. Most mathematics is not useful at the Planck scale.
Mathematics is only useful at low energy. If you explore quantum
gravity using mathematical analysis, you cannot reach the Planck scale.
Because equations of motion for quantum gravity are impossible, any
equation describing nature simply neglects quantum gravity.
Most of mathematics – including sets, elements, axioms, points, and
numbers – arises only
once physics is approximated by neglecting minimum length, i.e., by
neglecting quantum gravity.
Fractals, continuity, topological spaces, dimensions of space, and real
numbers are
examples of approximations that arise by neglecting quantum gravity.
Every equation of physics that contains discrete or continuous
quantities - thus every equation of physics - is an approximation.
Mathematics is built on physics.
Mathematics arises once physics is approximated - by neglecting quantum
gravity.
Mathematics is imprecise physics.
The following statements are topics of research.
The 9 lines and the minimum length imply that the future
unified theory has no evolution equation and no
Lagrangian. There are several reasons. First, if the unified theory
had a Lagrangian, it would assume continuous space and time and thus
contradict the minimum length. Second, minimum length implies minimum
measurement errors for all observables. An evolution equation thus cannot
exist in principle. Third, black hole entropy shows that space and matter
are made of common constituents of Planck size. But single Planck-sized
constituents cannot be observed. Thus, there is no way to define motion, a
Lagrangian or an evolution for single constituents can be deduced - only
for many of them. Finally, in a unified Lagrangian, the quantities
appearing in it would not be explained. But then the theory would not be
unified.
Lagrangians are intrinsically approximate. But the unified theory cannot be
approximate.
The limits of nature imply that the mathematics of the unified theory of
relativistic quantum gravity – what journalists call the “theory of
everything” or “final theory” – is fully defined and determined by the
minimum length and by the properties of the common constituents. There
cannot be complicated, analytical mathematics in the unified theory.
The detailed arguments leading to the lack of analytic mathematics in
the unified theory are shown in C.
Schiller, "Absence of a Lagrangian for the unified theory of
relativistic quantum gravity" at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364261495.
For the unified theory, the minimum length eliminates all
continuous structures for space. For example, there cannot be
quantum foam or additional spatial dimensions. There cannot be additional
structures that extend continuous space, such as fermionic coordinates.
Supersymmetry is eliminated. There cannot be dualities
or conformal field theory.
Measurement errors eliminate all discrete structures for space. For
example, space cannot be a graph or be made of invariant space atoms.
Measurement errors also eliminate all discrete structures for space that
extend the usual three-dimensional space, because both discreteness and
continuity are only approximations. This eliminates all dualities between
the large and the small.
The lack of sets in nature, the lack of points, and the lack of sharp
boundaries, taken together, eliminate all axioms from physics.
In short, the unified theory cannot have equations, cannot have
complicated mathematics, cannot be continuous, cannot be discrete, and
cannot be axiomatic. The minimum length - as black holes show - implies that the common
constituents of space and time have a Planck area cross-section and also
reach, like space itself, the boundary of the universe.
More precisely, the 9 lines imply that the common constituents are
filiform, of Planck radius, and fluctuating.
Details and consequences are explored in "From
maximum force to physics in 9 lines and towards relativistic quantum
gravity" at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365750175.
The minimum length thus
suggests that nature consists of strands. (Possible
alternatives have to be eliminated; this is done in the paper.) A proposal that realizes all the mentioned
requirements is found here.
The minimum length implies that space is emergent; it arises
from large numbers of strands. Likewise, also wave functions, particles,
and interactions emerge from strands.
If particles and fields are made of strands, particles and fields must
be due to configurations of strands. Wave functions and field
quanta must also be due to configurations of strands.
If space, curvature, matter and radiation are made of strands, also
physical action and Lagrangians must be due to strands.
If space, curvature, matter and radiation are made of strands, also all
events and all motion in nature, with all its randomness and all its
deterministic outcomes, must be due to strands.
The 9 lines imply that the unified theory has only two
experimental effects: (1) general relativity and (2) the standard model of
elementary particle physics, extended with massive Dirac neutrinos and PMNS
mixing. Proposals for unified theories that require additional forces,
particles, effects or concepts are unlikely to agree with observations.
Therefore, the 9 lines imply that the first test of any
proposed unified theory of relativistic quantum gravity is the explanation
of the forces and elementary particles found in nature.
If particles, interactions and space are made of strands, the
particle masses and coupling constants must be due to statistics of
strands. Fundamental constants must be unique and calculable.
Therefore, the 9 lines imply that the definite test of any
proposed unified theory of relativistic quantum gravity is the calculation
of the values of the elementary particle masses, of the mixing matrices,
and of the coupling constants. Proposals for unified theories that do not
allow such calculations are not correct.
The prediction of the neutrino masses and their mixings might well be
the only predictions that are still possible in fundamental
physics. All other constants have already been measured. Regularly, celebrities make statements about quantum gravity and
unification. But there is no royal road to geometry. And there is no
shortcut for celebrities to quantum gravity.
Nature is not a computer. Given the minimum length and the minimum
time, nature and what happens in it is not computable exactly, but
only approximately, and only at scales far from the Planck scale. The
Planck limits also limit computation. If you believe that nature is a
computer, you are in contrast with the laws of nature.
Nature is not a computer nor a display. Nature cannot
be divided meaningfully into cubes of Planck length. The arguments above
imply that such a division does not describe any physical system or any
physical variable. The same hold for spheres of Planck length, or any
other shape with Planck size in all three dimensions. Neither nature nor
any physical system is made of Planck-sized voxels (volume elements). Such
voxels would contrast with the difference between matter and empty space,
with the observation of particles, and with every other observation.
(Instead, nature, space and physical systems are made of randomly occurring strand crossing switches.
Strands do not produce tight distributions of volume elements - but only
rare and distant strand crossing switches.)
In contrast, black hole horizons can meaningfully be divided into
surface elements of Planck area. But their arrangement fluctuates
continuously. Such fluctuating surface elements yield black hole entropy.
However, even for black holes, the Planck area is not
observable. All other physical systems cannot meaningfully be divided into
surface elements of Planck area. (Instead, nature, space and physical
systems consist of strands with randomly occurring
strand crossing switches. On black hole horizons, the crossings are as tight as
possible.)
Not even in everyday physical space can length values be meaningfully
divided into elements of Planck length. In no experiment about physical
space can Planck lengths be counted. The Planck length cannot be reached
or observed.
So how can space, nature and physical systems be made of randomly
occurring strand crossing switches? They can because only strands explain the particles, the forces and all their
properties observed in nature.
* *
the minimum action ,
and a black hole limit of general relativity: either the maximum force
or, if you prefer, the maximum mass per length ratio
 
where is force, is
distance, is
time, and is speed. Equivalently, action is
 
where is energy and is mass.
After inserting the limits, in both cases the result is
 
In other words, the combination of the three limits implies that
nature has a minimum length. It is given by twice the Planck length.
Time is an approximation
General relativity and quantum theory are consistent and compatible
Space is made of constituents
Elementary particle mass and energy are limited
Mathematics is approximate physics
Research: what the unified theory of nature cannot be
Research: what the unified theory of nature must be
Research: celebrities on quantum gravity